carfree UK - Resources

Building sustainable transport into new development: A Menu of Options for Growth Points and Eco-towns (2008)
Forms part of the Government's planning guidance for eco-towns
Eco-towns Transport Worksheet (2008)
Forms part of the Government's planning guidance for eco-towns
Making Residential Travel Plans Work: Guidelines for new development
Contains reference to the success of various small carfree projects in the UK
A New Deal for Transport: Integrated Transport White Paper (1998)
With reference to carfree housing on page 52
Planning Policy Guidance 13: Transport (2001)
With reference to carfree housing in Clause 68
Planning Policy Statement: Eco-towns (2009)
Generally weak transport guidance from CLG: "Planning applications should include travel plans which demonstrate ... how the town's design will enable at least 50 per cent of trips originating in ecotowns to be made by non-car means"
Planning Policy Statement 23: Planning and Pollution Control - Annex 1: Pollution Control, Air and Water Quality (2008)
With reference to carfree development in the context of local air pollution mitigation in Clause 1.50
Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution Report on the Urban Environment (2007)
"Commissioners are astonished that, on the eve of the new phase of urban regeneration and expansion, we lack an over-arching urban environment policy to coordinate the provision of housing, transport, energy and other vital services". See page 2 for a summary of the impacts of unrestrained car use.
Scotland's National Transport Strategy (2006)
With reference to carfree housing on pages 34 and 46
Scottish Planning Policy 17: Planning for Transport (2005)
With reference to carfree housing and maximum parking standards in paragraph 58.

Research papers

Anable, J. (2005) 'Complacent Car Addicts' or 'Aspiring Environmentalists'? Identifying travel behaviour segments using attitude theory Transport Policy 12(1):65-78.

Anderson, S. and Stradling, SG. (2004) Attitudes to Car Use and Modal Shift in Scotland The Scottish Government, Edinburgh.

Borgers, A., Snellen, D., Poelman, J. and Timmermans, H. (2008) Preferences for Car-restrained Residential Areas Journal of Urban Design 13(2):257-267.
Although most people prefer to live in areas in which car ownership and proximal parking are unconstrained, this view may be overcome by providing secure parking facilities, good walking and cycling facilities, and short distances between the home and public transport access points.

Cervero, R. and Radisch, C. (1996) Travel choices in pedestrian versus automobile oriented neighborhoods Transport Policy 3(3):127-141.
Compares travel patterns in a traditional pedestrian-friendly and mixed-use community with a low-density residential suburb in the San Francisco Bay Area. Walking and public transport account for significantly more non-work trips in the former.

Cullinane, S. and Cullinane, K. (2003) Car dependence in a public transport dominated city: evidence from Hong Kong Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 8(2):129-138.
Explores the reasons for car ownership and the extent of car dependence in Hong Kong. Despite the existence of excellent public transport, people become dependent on the car for virtually all journey purposes once one has been acquired. In conclusion, both car ownership and use must be controlled to achieve greater sustainability.

Curtis, C. (1996) Can strategic planning contribute to a reduction in car-based travel? Transport Policy 3(1):55-65.
This paper draws on evidence from Oxfordshire to suggest that the proximity of new development to the strategic road network is a primary determinant of household relocation decisions and subsequent travel behaviour.

Curtis, C. and Headicar, P. (1997) Targeting travel awareness campaigns: Which individuals are more likely to switch from car to other transport for the journey to work? Transport Policy 4(1):57-65.

de Jong, G., Kouwenhoven, M., Geurs, K., Bucci, P. Tuinenga, J.G. (2009) The impact of fixed and variable costs on household car ownership Journal of Choice Modelling 2(2):173-199.
Households react more strongly to a change in euro per year in fixed car costs than to a euro per year in variable car costs. Abolishing the Dutch car purchase tax while at the same time introducing a kilometre charge will lead to 2% rise in car ownership on the short to medium run (1-5 years).

Fitzroy, F. and Smith, I. (1998) Public transport demand in Freiburg: why did patronage double in a decade? Transport Policy 5(3):163-173.

Gardner, B. and Abraham, C. (2008) Psychological correlates of car use: A meta-analysis Transportation Research Part F 11(4):300-311.
Discusses the effect of habit on car use, and the disconnect between pro-environmental attitudes and travel behaviour.

Gilbert, R. (2000) Sustainable Mobility in the City Presentation to URBAN 21, Global Conference on the Urban Future, Berlin, Germany, 4-6 July 2000.
"Because car ownership impels car use, strategies for curbing car use that do not seek to limit ownership are likely to fail. The 'low-technology' vision presented to but rejected by the [World] Commission offers more promise [than the 'ecocar'] with respect to sustainable transport, chiefly because it speaks to a reduction in car ownership."

Glotz-Richter, M. (1995) Living without a car World Transport Policy and Practice 1(1):45-47.
The Bremen experience, as told by the Head of Ecological Urban Planning at the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Urban Development, City of Bremen, Germany.

Hazel, G. (1998) Sustainable Transport: Edinburgh's Approach World Transport Policy and Practice 4(4):16-23.
The origins of Slateford Green, a carfree development in the Edinburgh suburbs.

Litman, T. (2007) Car-free Planning Part of the Victoria Transport Policy Institute's Online Travel Demand Management Encyclopaedia.

McKenzie, C. (1999) Car-Free Cities - Myth or Possibility? Exploring the boundaries of sustainable urban transport World Transport Policy and Practice 5(1):4-10.

Morris, D., Enoch, M., Pitfield, D. and Ison, S. (2009) Car-free development through UK community travel plans Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers: Urban Design and Planning 162(1):19-27.
Argues the case for adoption of the European model for car-free housing, and considers the use of CTPs to facilitate this and reduce car dependency within existing communities.

Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (2000) The Ten Myths of Automobile Dependence World Transport Policy and Practice 6(1):15-25.
The myths relating to wealth, climate, space, age, health and social problems, rural life styles, the road lobby, land developers, traffic engineering and town planning praxis are analysed and dismissed. The authors suggest only the last factor in this list continues to be inevitable due to entrenched practices which should be replaced.

Nobis, C. (2003) The impact of car-free housing districts on mobility behaviour - Case study. In: Beriatos, E., Brebbia, CA., Cocossis, H. and Kungalos, A. (eds.) (2003) International Conference on Sustainable Planning and Development, WIT Press, pp701-720.
57% of Vauban residents without a car gave up their vehicle after moving in. This study further compares the travel behaviour of car-free and car-owning households in Vauban and other districts in Freiburg.

Ornetzeder, M., Hertwich, EG., Hubacek, K., Korytarova, K. and Haas, W. (2008) The environmental effect of car-free housing: A case in Vienna Ecological Economics 65(3):516-530.
Surface transport and domestic energy-related carbon dioxide emissions from households in a car-free development are half those from households in a conventional reference settlement.

Reutter, O. (2002) Local mobility management and urban renewal in public-private partnership: the example of the model project 'car reduced living in an existing residential area at Johannesplatz in Halle/Saale' Proceedings of European Conference on Mobility Management, Gent, 15-17 May 2002.

Reutter, U. and Reutter, O. (1996) Car-free households: who lives without an automobile today? World Transport Policy and Practice 2(4):32-37.
A look at the demographics of carfree living in Germany.

Scheurer, J. (2001) Car-free Housing in European Cities. A Survey of Sustainable Residential Development Projects PhD thesis.

Woodcock, W., Banister, D., Edwards, P., Prentice, AM. and Roberts, I. (2007) Energy and Transport The Lancet 370(9592):1078-1088.
Examines active vs fossil fuel powered transport, concluding that a carfree Greater London is required to deliver carbon savings of at least 80% by 2050.

Woodcock, J., Edwards, P., Tonne, C., Armstrong, B.G., Ashiru, O., Banister, D., Beevers, S., Chalabi, Z., Chowdhury, Z., Cohen, A., Franco, O.H., Haines, A., Hickman, R., Lindsay, G., Mittal, I., Mohan, D., Tiwari, G., Woodward, A. and Roberts, I. (2009)
Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport The Lancet 374(9705):1930-1943.
Policies to increase the acceptability, appeal, and safety of active urban travel, and discourage travel in private motor vehicles would provide larger health benefits than would policies that focus solely on lower-emission motor vehicles.

Wootton, J. (1999) Replacing the private car Transport Reviews 19(2):157-175.

Wright, C. and Egan, J. (2000) De-marketing the Car Transport Policy 7(4):287-294.

Wright, C. and Curtis, B. (2004) Reshaping the motor car Transport Policy 12(1):11-22.
Decoupling car culture and mobility.

Young, RK. (2002) Innovation - the lessons from Slateford Green Communities Scotland report.
Independent evaluation of the UK's first car-free development in Edinburgh.